An evaluation of Repetitive Stress Injury (RSI) The WritePass Journal

An evaluation of Repetitive Stress Injury (RSI) Introduction An evaluation of Repetitive Stress Injury (RSI) IntroductionResearch evaluating the upper limb tension testMethodologyParticipantsProcedure  Data AnalysisRESULTSNature of the perceived sensory response and difference between the mouse and the non mouse handLocation of the perceived sensory responseDiscussion:Summary of the resultsTheoretical Implication:Clinical Implication:Strength of the studyLimitationsScope for future researchConclusionREFERENCESRelated Introduction The incidence of repetitive injury has steadily increased over the past decade and evidence indicates that this trend will continue. (Millender et al 1992, Byng et al 1997). In UK according to the NHS report, 1 in 50 workers has reported symptoms of repetitive stress injury (RSI) (Scot et al 2008). More recently there have been reports of increase in RSI among computer operators (Anderson et al 2008) reason being their repetitive jobs at faster pace. There is also research which reads that forcefulness and awkward position of upper limb have a direct effect on the development of repetitive stress injury (Greening et al 1999). Even though RSI is common, the causes of RSI are complex, diverse and incompletely understood till today. Amongst the most various hypotheses suggested over decades there is some evidence of involving the whole nociceptive system (Brain 2009). With respect to the RSI in upper limb, commonly reported symptoms by patients are cramps, par aesthesia, and hyperalgesia, with no major motor or sensory involvement (Scott et al 2008). And after reviewing these symptoms again and again the nervous system is said to be certainly involved directly or indirectly in all the patients of overuse injury of upper limb (Reisch et al 2005). It were these studies that have given birth to concept called Neurodynamic in the world of physiotherapy (Shacklock 1995) Neurodynamics has become progressively more accepted as part of the evaluation and management of the repetitive injuries (Blaster et al 1997). The ULTT was initially thought by Elvey (1979) as an objective assessment of the neural tissue of the upper quadrant in the examination of arm pain and local pain pattern of the upper quadrant. Fundamentals of neurodynamic testing are that the nervous system exists in physiological and mechanical continuity (Slater ET al1994). This means that when mechanical stresses when applied on the nerve may evoke physiological responses such as alteration in axonal transport or may be interneural blood flow. And physiological disturbances like diabetes may predispose a nerve to mechanical disturbances (Mackinnon et al1986). Physiotherapists’ incorporating tension tests as a part of assessment and treatment have documented that altered nerve extensibility and is a very common finding in RSI disorders. In   conjunction with symptomatology and subjective responses to these techniques, difference in the range of motion (ROM), difference in perceived response etc   between the affected and the non affected are often considered indicative of adverse neural tension, with implied assumption that such differences are not apparent in asymptomatic subjects (Butler 1989). Such assumption questions the evidence based practise and the validity of these tests (Sackett. et al 1996) Research evaluating the upper limb tension test Shacklock in 1995 concluded that ULTT for median nerve is a simple, effective and reliable method of examination to gain an impression of nerve mobility after performing test on cadavers. In 2005 Resich et al performed a study to measure the reliability and sensory response of median nerve biased on normal subjects. The limitation of the study was that it was done just on one side of body of normal individual. This therefore did not allow assessing if any variability or response existed in left and right side. Also the study was done on non keyboard workers thus the results cannot be generalised. Byng et al in 1997 conducted a research to compare the response of ULTT median nerve in asymptomatic, symptomatic key board workers and non keyboard workers. The results concluded that there was a variation in response to the nerve test among the three groups with keyboard workers having significant altered neural sensitivity when compared to non keyboard workers there by concluding the pain in key board workers is neural in origin. The shortcoming of this study was that there is no information regarding what was considered as a normal response at individual joint as there was only unilateral comparison.   Scott et al in 2008 performed a study to determine the false positive ULTT and slumps tests in healthy adults and reported there are false positive response in asymptomatic. But the study was just performed on dominant side of the body thus there can be no comparison and these results cannot be expected for the opposite arm. Also the mean age of participants was only 22 years thus cannot be generalized. Since the researchers knew the dominant side this may have contaminated the result. Thus ULTT is an undoubtedly simple, effective and reliable method of examination to gain an impression of nerve mobility but no trial has attempted to compare the variability of the neural tension test response bilaterally in normals. Without this bit of information the validity of the ULTT is questionable. Thus the aim of the study is to evaluate if there is any difference in mechano sensitivity and perceived response to median nerve ULTT test when compared bilaterally in non symptomatic female key board worker. Methodology Participants Inclusion criteria for the study were: asymptomatic female key board operators between the ages of 18- 60 years without any sensory problem of upper limb and/or neck within the last three months. Participants who complained of bit of neck pain on prolonged hours of sitting which did not radiate to shoulder or upper limb were included.   Subjects were excluded if they reported any contraindication and/or precaution (Butler, 1991) like   peripheral or central nervous system disease or medical metabolic disease like diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis. They were also excluded if they had reduced range of motion of the upper limb and cervical spine. Thirty female asymptomatic key board operators volunteered for the study (mean   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  age 31  ± 6.8 years; range: 24-54 years). Prior to the study all the participants read participation information sheet and signed consent form.   There after participants filled the evaluation form which was regarding inclusion criteria, years of experience, hours of work per day and arm dominance. Arm dominance was defined as the hand participants used for operating the mouse also referred to as mouse hand in the study. Participants were requested not to disclose information regarding their mouse hand during the study. The information pertaining arm dominance was blinded to both the researchers as it was known only after the application of ULTT1 test. Procedure Ethical approval was granted by the Committee on Ethics in Research at Sheffield Hallam University.   After the participants had filled the evaluation form and the participant was eligible for the study screening movements were performed on the cervical spine, thoracic spine and of both the upper limb to abolish these structures as potential resources of symptoms. Two researchers were involved in the study. Both were students of Msc Applying Physiotherapy at Sheffield Hallam University. The author was the primary researcher who performed ULTT1 on all the participants in both hands. The second researcher only assisted to record the response to ULTT1 on body chart. The method adopted to perform ULTT for median nerve was the test proposed by Elvey 1986, Kenneally et al 1988 and Butler 1991a. David Butler in 1991a conveyed ULTT1 to be median nerve dominant and was reliable in normal’s (Edgar et al 1994) and in patient population (Selvaratnam 1991). The ULTT 1 test was described to each participant by the prime researcher before the test is performed and were informed that their participation was utmost important while recording the response on the body chart. They were also informed to move any part of their body while describing their response to the assistant researcher. Each participant wore a vest for the research purpose. There after each participant lay supine on a high/low plinth with the test arm slightly off the plinth. For convenience researcher passively manoeuvres the test first on right hand followed by the left .The position was secured with seat belts around thorax and pelvis to avert lateral movement of the chest. The right arm was tested first for convenience and was placed in starting position with the glen humeral (G-H) joint in neutral, elbow flexed and forearm, wrist, fingers and thumb in neutral. The other arm will lay relaxed adjacent to the abdomen. The participants were advised to maintain the head in neutral position and were requested to look at a spot on ceiling which negated any cervical spine rotation. Thus with the neck in neutral position the ULTT 1 test was commenced. To start with the shoulder was positioned in to neutral position and the examiner placed the hand on the test shoulder to prevent elevation. This was followed by G-H joint abduction to a maximum of 110 ° in frontal plane. From this position wrist, fingers and thumb were passively extended the forearm was supinated. The G-H joint was then externally rotated to no more than 50 ° as the third distinct component to shoulder. Thus the last component to be added was elbow extension. The elbow was extended until full extension was achieved or participant reported any symptoms at any stage of the test. When the symptom were reported by the participant the second researcher was responsible to record the nature of perceived sensory response in form of words or phrases and the location of the perceived sensory response on a right side marked on body chart. There after structural differentiation (STD) i.e. ipsilateral neck flexion (INF) was performed by the actively. ULTT1 was considered mechanosensitive positive only if the participant perceived reduction in the perceived symptoms and if the primary researcher performing ULTT visually observed an increase in the   range of motion at elbow after the addition of desensitising manoeuvre i.e. the ipsilateral neck flexion (Quinter 1989, Butler 1990). The response of mechanosensitivity for ULTT was recorded as â€Å"Yes â€Å"or â€Å"No† and the response to structural deviation was recorded as increased (↑) or decreased (↓) with respect to symptoms only. A break of 10 minutes was given before the test was performed in the left hand. The same procedure was carried out and data was collected in similar manner on body chart.   Data Analysis Descriptive statistics were utilized to know if mechanosensitivity for ULTT1 exists in the participants. After data collection all the sensory responses were collated on a single body chart(figure 2) which as further analysed by dividing the upper limb into five distinct areas i.e. cubital, forearm, wrist, fingers and thumb. Frequencies of these locations were counted regardless of its nature and were tabulated. This made comparison between the two hands easier. The nature of perceived sensory response which was reported as words or phrases was divided in two categories stretch pain, pull pain. Frequency of the similar type of response was counted and compared for further analysis. Demographic characteristics like age, years of experience, hours of work and dominance were to analyse if association between ULTT1 response and these variables exists. To achieve the aim of the study, the data were analysed by answering the following questions. Analysis of the ULTT1 response in asymptomatic key board operators i.e. (mechanosensitive and the perceived sensory response from body chart). From the above analysis are there any evidence showing upper limb neurodynamic tests for median nerve is positive among asymptomatic key board operators? If â€Å"Yes† is there a difference in the response to ULTT1 when compared bilaterally? If there is a difference in response when compared bilaterally, is there an association between the hours of work, age and dominance with the ULTT1 response. The answers to these key questions further assisted in exploration of the research question: Is there a variability of response to upper limb neurodynamic test of median nerve in asymptomatic keyboard operators when compared bilaterally RESULTS Summary of mechanosensitive response compared between mouse and non mouse hand: Table 1 : Table of mechanosensitivity and sensory response in bilateral upper limbs. No Mousehand RIGHT ULTT 1 RIGHT STD    LEFT ULTT 1 LEFT STD Nature of perceived sensory response (R) Location of sensory response(R) Nature of perceived sensory response (L) Location of sensory response(L) 1 L Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3 Stretch pain 1,2,3,4,5 2 R N ↓ N ↓ 3 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3,4,5 Pull pain 1,2 4 L Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3 Pull pain 1,2,3 5 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4 Stretch pain 1,2,3   6 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3,4,5 Pull pain 1,2 7 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3,4,5 Pull pain 1,2,3,4 8 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4 Stretch pain 1,2 9 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4,5 Stretch pain 1,2,3,4 10 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4 Stretch pain 1,2,3 11 R N ↓ N ↓ 12 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3,4,5 Pull pain 1,2,3,4,5 13 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4,5 Stretch pain 1,2,3 14 R Y Y Pull pain 1,2,3,4 Pull pain 1,2,3 15 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3,4,5 Pull pain 1,2 16 R N ↓ N ↓ 17 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4 Stretch pain 1,2 18 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3,4,5 Pull pain 1,2,3 19 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4 Stretch pain 1,2,3 20 R Y Y Stretch pain 1,2,3,4 Stretch pain 1,2, 21 L Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3,4 Pull pain 1,2,3,4,5 22 R N ↓ N ↓ 23 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3 Pull pain 1,2,3, 24 R Y Y Stretch pain 1,2,3,4,5 Stretch pain 1,2 25 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4,5 Stretch pain 1,2,3 26 L N ↓ N ↓ 27 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3,4 Pull pain 1,2 28 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4,5 Stretch pain 1,2,3 29 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3,4,5 Pull pain 1,2,3 30 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4 Stretch pain 1,2,3 ULTT1 Upper limb neural tissue tension test for median nere ; STD structural differentiation; INF: ipsilateral neck flexion      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Incidenc e of mechanosensitive response Fig1-Incidence of detected mechanosensitive response for ULTT 1 amongst asymptomatic keyboard operators From figure 1 it was evident that a high number of participants showed response for ULTT1. On adding ipsilateral neck flexion all of them perceived reduction in the symptoms Table 1.There was nobody who had complained of   unilateral symptoms.   Thus there was no difference in the mechanosensitive response to ULLT1 in the mouse and non mouse hand. Nature of the perceived sensory response and difference between the mouse and the non mouse hand After summarising the data from 30 body charts it was observed that 13 participants (43.33%) had complained of â€Å"stretch pain† and 12 participants (40%) had complained of â€Å"pull† pain (Table 1). After comparing the sensory response of mouse hand and non mouse hand in table 1, it was observed there was no difference in perceived sensory response in both the hands. Location of the perceived sensory response The location of perceived sensation in the right and left hand of all the participants were plotted on a single body chart. Figure 1 shows numerical involvement of location of symptoms for the ULTT1 amongst asymptomatic keyboard operators. Figure 1: Body chart divided into 5 areas where responses were perceived. After analysing the repsponse Graphs 2a and 2b :Comparing the symptoms in the mouse and the non mouse hand Location of response  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Location of response From the graphs 2a and 2b it is clearly evident there was difference in the location of sensory response between the mouse and the non mouse hand. The median nerve was more sensititive in fingers and the wrist joints as compared to the non mouse hand. Discussion: Summary of the results The results from this study showed that asymptomatic keyboard operators showed a positive mechanosensitive response for ULTT1. There was no difference in the mechanosensitive and perceived sensory response when compared bilaterally. 83.33% participants had bilaterally positive mechanosensitive response and had shown increased area of symptoms in mouse hand. And on further reviewing individual characteristics of these participants there was no association found between with age, hours of work and years of experience. Byng 1997 compared the response of ULTT1 between patients, asymptomatic keyboard workers and asymptomatic non keyboard workers.   The results showed that key board operators had significant positive ULTT compared to non-keyboard user. Thus the current study and study performed by Byng et al 1997 proposes that a subclinical pathological condition exists in key board operators. There could be many reasons for such a scenario in this group of population. One of the reflection is the type of muscle exertion that is involved in the keyboard workers performing repetitive task for a prolonged hours causes static loading of neck and shoulder muscles (Subratty et al 2005). These static sustained contractions of the shoulders, neck and upper limbs may be required to fix the hands in a functional position necessary for the task (Pascarelli et al 2011). Along with this dynamic contraction of the forearm muscles are required for repetitive key actions which are then superimposed over this backg round of static muscular activity. The musculoskeletal system presents the nervous system with a mechanical interface (Butler 1989). A static muscle contraction such as those witnessed in key board users cause compression of a nerve there by reducing the mobility resulting in positive mechanosensitive response (Subratty et al 2005). The results of the study performed by Lohkamp et al 2011 were in contrast to the current study. He compared bilateral ULTT1 response in 90 normal individuals and the results showed that there were more neurogenic response and reduced ROM in the non dominant hand as compared to dominant hand. The difference in the result between the two studies could be attributed to the difference in the population involved. Lohkamp et al 2011 performed study on normal healthy individual who utilized their non-dominant hand less for their normal daily activities which could have led to reduced flexibility of muscles and compromised mobility of the nerve. In the present study since key board operation is a bilateral task such a difference was not observed. Structural differentiation is added to determine if the ULTT is positive or not (Butler 1991, Nee 2006). Depending on the type of structural differentiation applied, tension in the median nerve could be increased or decreased (Byl et al 2002).   In this study all the participants who had reported symptoms for ULTT1; 100% had reported decreased in the sensory response after adding structural differentiation (ipsilateral neck flexion). Similar results were reported by Selvaratnam et al 1994 and Scot et al 2008. This observation might be caused by decreased tensile force of the nerve causing increase in the circulation (Otaga and Niato, 1986). Similar results were seen in a study performed by Coopeiters et al 2002A which concluded that with structural differentiation there was a change in the ROM at the elbow joint and the frequency of response distal to it had reduced. Coopeiters et al 2002A also suggested performing contra lateral neck flexion as a structural differentiation to ULTT 1 as it causes more tension in the nerve tissue and is more specific in provoking the symptoms. But since this study was done in asymptomatic key board operators who are already exposed to high risk of developing overuse syndrome symptoms (Scot et al,2008),   contra lateral neck flexion was not the choice of STD in this study for ethical reasons. The present study found no difference in the perceived sensory response in the mouse and the non- mouse hand. Stretch and pull pain were the reported perceived symptoms. The literature reads that stretch and pull sensations are considered as normal response to ULTT1. An individual is considered as mechanosensitive positive if there is a decreased in the ROM while performing ULTT (Buttler1991). Even though the participants had shown response which was similar to normal’s they were still labelled as mechano sensitive for ULTT1 as the researcher had observed reduced ROM at elbow while performing ULTT but it was not measured. This further emphasise that asymptomatic key board users could have a hidden pathological state and are at high risk for developing repetitive stress injury syndromes. An understandable sample of frequency and nature of symptoms was recognized as there was not much of deviation. Amongst the participants who were mechanosensitive bilaterally 100% had perceived sensation at the cubital area (anterior aspect of elbow). The other common reported sites were forearm, wrist, fingers and thumb. The site of involvement was in accordance to the study put forth by Kenneally et al 1988 and Butler et al 1989. The 92% who had complained of more areas of response in mouse hand, had perceived symptoms in the cubital area   wrist fingers and thumb while the non dominant hand had received symptoms only in cubital area and forearm. The rationale for this could be the usage of the mouse itself.   Recent studies like Jepsen et al 2002 contributed to the literature by performing a cross sectional study on computer operators and concluded that pain, parasthesia and weakness were more prevalent in mouse arm as compared to non-mouse arm. The clinical reasoning behind this could be the mouse operating wrist is constantly positioned in a bent position and this causes reduced space in the carpal tunnel further reducing the mobility of median nerve and the other structures like tendon situated in it. Thus in the median exposed to more compressive forces in the mouse hand than the contra lateral limb and hence it becomes irritable and produces symptoms like tingling and numbness in the wrist, fingers and thumb. Also the difference in location of response had no association with age, hours of work and years of experience as these characteristics were no different than the other participants in the study similar result were observed by (Byng et al 1997) Theoretical Implication: From the current study it can be suggested that a subclinical pathological state exisits among female amongst the asymptomatic female key board operators supporting several hypothesis that the origin of repetitive stress injury are neurogenic in origin. This study also suggests that the usage of the mouse along with causes increased mechanosensitivity of median nerve in wrist fingers and thumb. Thus work place modification and ergonomic advise should also consider the mouse modification. Clinical Implication: Literature shows that dominant arm in normal’s could be used as a control group while assessing the ULTT1 response amongst symtomatics as there exists no variation in response to ULTT1 amongst normal healthy individuals. This study though performed on asymptomatic targeted an intermediate group and suggests that dominant arm is not a reliable diagnostic indicator as variability exists in the bilateral response with more response being in the dominant arm which is in contrast to the current literature. Strength of the study Limited research is available which compares bilateral response of ULTT1 thus the current study adds on to this limited literature. Also while ULTT1 was being conducted the researchers were blinded to the information of dominance to prevent assessor bias. The results obtained from the study could be generalizable as a large age group was included. Limitations Participants were labelled as mechanosesntitive positive if they had perceived a reduction in symptoms after adding ipsilateral neck flexion . No objecetive scale was used to find by how much the percentage the symptoms were reduced thus future research should incorporate scales like VAS scale to have more reliable results. The ULTT was carried out only ones on participants to label them as mechanosesntive positive. Thus this single reposne may not have recorded the real response. Ideally a mean of 3 response would be indiacted to prevent any errors. Scope for future research Future research should focus on more objective methods of accessing the variability of response ofULTT1 among symptomatic key board operators. If ROM is suggested as objective means to measure variability research should be carried out to know how much difference in ROM is required to label an individual mechanosensitive positive. 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Mechanical tension in the median nerve. The effects of joint positions. Clinical Biomechanics 1995b; 10 (5): 240-244 Kleinrensink GJ, Stoeckart R, Mulder PGH, van der Hoek G, Broek TH Vleeming A, Snijders CJ. Upper limb tension tests as tools in the diagnosis of nerve and plexus lesions. Anatomical and biomechanical aspects. Clinical Biomechanics 2000; 15: 9-14 Kryger AI, Andersen JH, Lassen CF et al. Does computer use pose an occupational hazard for forearm pain; from the NUDATA study. Occup Environ Med 2003; 60:e14 Lewis J, Ramot R, Green A.   Changes in mechanical tension in the median nerve: possible implications for the upper limb tension test. Physiotherapy 1998; 84 (6): 254-261 Lohkamp M, Small K. Normal response to Upper limb Neurodynamic Test 1 and 2A. Manual Therapy 2011; 16:125-130 Mackinnon SE. Double and multiple crush syndrome. Hand clinic 1992; 8: 369-390. Nee RJ, Butler D. 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Rosenberg W, Donald A.   Evidence based medicine: an approach to clinical problem solving. British Medical Journal 1995; 310: 1122-1126 Sackett DL, Rosenberg WMC, Gray JAM, Haynes RB, Richardson WS . Evidence based Medicine: what it is and what it isn’ t. British Medical Journal 1996; 312: 71-72 Scott ,Anderson IB, Mary Grace Carson MG, Elkins CL , Stuckey LB.Upper limb Neural tension and seated slump tests: The False Positive Rate among Healthy Young Adults without Cervical or Lumbar Symptoms. Journal of Manual Manipulative Therapy2008; 16(3):136-141 Shacklock MO. Clinical applications of neurodynamics. In Shacklock MO (Ed.): Moving in on pain Australia Buttersworth-Heinemann 1995, pp 123-131 Shacklock MO.   Positive upper limb tension test in a case of surgically proven neuropathy: analysis and validity. Manual Therapy 1996; 1(3): 154-161 Shacklock M. Neurodynamics 1995. Physiotherapy 1995; 81(1):9-16. Slater H, Vincenzino B et al. Sympathetic slump the effect of a novel manual therapy technique on peripheral sympathetic nervous system function.Journal of Manual Manipulative Therapy, 1994; 2: 156-162. Subratty , Korumtollee F. Occupational overuse syndrome among keyboard users in Mauritius. Indian association of occupational health 2005; 9(2):71-75.Woolf CJ. Recent advances in the path physiology of acute pain. British Journal of Anaesthesia1989; 63: 139-146 Sunderland S, Bradley KC.   Stress-strain phenomena in human peripheral nerve trunks. Brain 1961; 84: 102-119 Walsh M.Upper Limb Neural Tension Testing and Mobilization: Fact, Fiction, and a Practical Approach. Journal of Hand therapy 2005; 18(2):241-258.

The Origin of Wildfires and How They Are Caused

The Origin of Wildfires and How They Are Caused It is interesting to note that, of the four billion years of earths existence, conditions were not conducive for spontaneous wildfire until the last 400 million years. A naturally-occurring atmospheric fire did not have the chemical elements available until major several earth changes occurred. The earliest life forms emerged without needing oxygen (anaerobic organisms) to live about 3.5 billion years ago and lived in a carbon dioxide based atmosphere. Life forms that needed oxygen in small amounts (aerobic) came much later in the form of photosynthesizing blue-green algae and ultimately changed the earths atmospheric balance toward oxygen and away from carbon dioxide (co2). Photosynthesis increasingly dominated earths biology by initially creating and continuously increasing the earths percentage of oxygen in the air. Green plant growth then exploded and aerobic respiration became the biologic catalyst for terrestrial life. Around 600 million years ago and during the Paleozoic, conditions for natural combustion started developing with increasing speed. Wildfire Chemistry Fire needs fuel, oxygen, and heat to ignite and spread. Wherever forests grow, the fuel for forest fires is provided mainly by continued biomass production along with the resulting fuel load  of that vegetative growth. Oxygen is created in abundance by the photosynthesizing process of living green organisms so it is all around us in the air. All that is needed then is a source of heat to provide the exact chemistry combinations for a flame. When these natural combustibles (in the form of wood, leaves, brush) reach 572 º, gas in the steam given off reacts with oxygen to reach its flash point with a burst of flame. This flame then preheats surrounding fuels. In turn, other fuels heat up and the fire grows and spreads. If this spreading process is not controlled, you have a wildfire or uncontrolled forest fire. Depending on the geographic condition of the site and the vegetative fuels present, you might call these brush fires, forest fires, sage field fires, grass fires, woods fires, peat fires, bush fires, wildland fires, or veld fires. How Do Forest Fires Start? Naturally caused forest fires are usually started by dry lightning where little to no rain accompanies a stormy weather disturbance. Lightning randomly strikes the earth an average of 100 times each second or 3 billion times every year and has caused some of the most notable wildland fire disasters  in the western United States. Most lightning strikes occur in the North American southeast and southwest. Because they often occur in isolated locations with limited access, lightning fires burn more acres than human-caused starts. The average 10-year total of U.S. wildfire acres burned and caused by humans is 1.9 million acres where  2.1 million acres burned are lightning-caused. Still, human fire activity is the primary cause of wildfires, with nearly ten times the start rate of natural starts. Most of these human-caused fires are accidental, usually caused by carelessness or inattention by campers, hikers, or others traveling through wildland or by debris and garbage burners. Some are intentionally set by arsonists. Some human-caused fires are started to reduce heavy fuel buildup and used as a forest management tool. This is called a controlled or prescribed burn and used for wildfire fire fuel reduction, wildlife habitat enhancement, and debris clearing. They are not included in the above statistics and ultimately reduce wildfire numbers by reducing conditions that contribute to wildfire and forest fires. How Does Wildland Fire Spread? The three primary classes of wildland fires are surface, crown, and ground fires. Each classification  intensity depends on the quantity and types of fuels involved and their moisture content. These conditions have an effect on fire intensity and will determine how fast the fire will spread. Surface fires typically burn readily but at a low intensity and partially consume the entire fuel layer while presenting little danger to mature trees and root systems. Fuel buildup over many years will increase intensity and especially when associated with drought, can become a rapidly spreading ground fire. Regular controlled fire or prescribed burning effectively reduces the fuel buildup leading to a damaging ground fire.Crown fires generally result from intense rising ground fire heat and occur in the higher sections of draping trees. The resulting ladder effect causes hot surface or ground fires to climb the fuels into the canopy. This can increase the chance for embers to blow and branches to fall into unburned areas and increase the spread the fire.Ground fires are the most infrequent type of fire but make for very intense blazes that can potentially destroy all vegetation and organic manner, leaving only bare earth. These largest fires actually create their own winds and weat her, increasing the flow of oxygen and feeding the fire.

The kite runner Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The kite runner - Assignment Example Courage is portrayed by characters when they are confronted by an ugly situation and when he points his slingshot at Assef. Hassan is the only person who portrayed bravery the most. He stood up to the Taliban even when he knew he was risking his life. Sohrab`s character shapes itself by the fact that both his paternities died, and he was taken to an orphanage, and eventually, moved to an Assef`s compound. The Taliban rule shapes his experience, and his vulnerability is due to his race. According to Farid and Assef homeland is home, and Watan is where they went to, America. Amir and Sohrab`s opinion of Homeland differ because they grew up there after leaving Afghanistan. Watan to them is a place where there are problems. Kite fighting and kite running are symbolic; the string shows the dichotomy between beauty and violence. Kites also represent fate and prophecy. Kites thematically represent the interrelationship between redemption and betrayal. Kite fights represent the violence in the story between the events and characters. The balance is struck through betrayal then redemption just as the kite balances. To be an American means that there is freedom from culture and the morals from their homeland. The opinion that brought across by most of the characters is that America is a refuge. A place where culture does not affect the occupants and as Baba sees it to his death. He considers himself a guest. To be a father in the novel is great depending on the sired child. Amir`s father is very proud of him from the very start because of his courage. Fatherhood measure depends on the accomplishments of the children. Baba considered his fatherhood to be a failure because he got a son whom he did not want to acknowledge. Monkey sees monkey do can be referred to when Amir was courting Soraya in America. Even though, there is freedom there, he still follows the customs where he came from, therefore, not even being allowed to see Soraya, even though, he

Subject Knowledge Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Subject Knowledge - Essay Example me that because the cover letter not only lends a more professional touch to the resume, but also makes it more convenient for the employer to imagine the skills and capability of thee candidate for the job. The third change I made was removing the objective. It made little sense to put the statement of objective when the objective is otherwise quite obvious to every employer who gets his/her hands at my resume. The fourth change I made was removing the list of subjects I had studied in my graduation. Unnecessary details don’t impress the employers. They set the impression that the candidate did not have much to discuss in the resume so he/she has discussed the unnecessary. The fifth change I made was reorganizing the content. I changed the achievements to the reverse chronological order to show the latest achievements at the top and the oldest at the bottom. This was done with the intention to facilitate the employers in knowing my latest

After Various Writings By Rich :: essays research papers

After various writings by Richard Rodriguez and Octavio Paz, I have come across several realizations. Who am I? Should I be a part of a nation and a â€Å"system† that does not value me, or should I be a part of a nation that does not acknowledge my existence? The United States as a nation does not value me, and Mà ©xico does not even know that I exist. These are difficult matters to discuss. We are all in search of our own identity. However, some of us are placed in a situation that makes it very difficult and confusing to know or understand. I have always asked myself, â€Å"Who am I?† I should put it in more crude words, â€Å"Where do I belong?† After this specific question is asked, I begin to realize that I have problems coming up with a response. My parents were born in Mà ©xico, and thus, they are Mexican. Sometimes I feel I belong here in the United States, but other times I feel more attached to Mà ©xico. I am a Mexican-American. However, I feel that I am denying in some way my heritage and my culture by saying that I am. I am denying my parents. I say that I’m Mexican because in a sense I am. I am also an American. I am a Mexican-American. What do these terms put together imply? They should imply that the person is Mexican and American. The term â€Å"Mexican-American† is the very reason why I find myself confused about who I really am. I need to search for my own identity, which leads me to the purpose of this essay. Rodriguez and Paz have discussed this particular problem of identity. All three have different viewpoints. Some of their ideas are similar but mostly contradictory, especially in the case of Rodriguez and Paz. As I was reading, I was able to relate to what they had to say, and in a much bigger sense, I was able to understand and know who I am. I was able to find my self.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  According to Paz, self-discovery is most than anything realizing that we are alone. Paz argues that our being or our identity becomes a problem and a question. It becomes a problem because of several reasons. We just don’t simply wake up one day and realize that we don’t know who we are. There are individuals who are placed in difficult situations that allow for these questions to arise.

Engineering the Impossible

Cities Inside a City Engineering the Impossible focused on three incredible, yet physically possible, engineering projects: the 170-story Millennium Tower, the nine mile (14 km)-long Gibraltar Bridge, and the 4000+-foot-long Freedom Ship. Millenium Tower Imagine a skyscraper almost twice the size of the Empire State Building. This colossus would be a city within a city, hosting its own hospitals, schools, and a range of entertainment and retail options large enough to attract and keep the traffic necessary for the financial success of such an endeavor. Stats:Height: 2,755 feet, 170 stories Resident Population: 52,000 Elevator Traffic: 100,000 people per day Location: Hong Kong Harbor Closest Living Relative: Petronas Towers, Kuala Lampur (1,483 feet, 88 stories) Construction Duration: Approximately 10 years Cost: $10 billion Beyond the physical challenges of building the tallest skyscraper in the world, it will only be successful if it attracts residents, tourists and offices. The Mi llennium Tower needs to offer many choices to make it a destination of choice. Residents can go to not just one grocery store, but many.Office workers can browse a few clothing stores on their level or the same amount 30 floors up. Tourists can find the movie they want in at least one of the many theaters available. Designers say Millennium Tower will house as many options as you'd find in several city blocks. Construction of the Millennium Tower will include traditional building techniques, that, in this case, will put ironworkers thousands of feet in the air to place 5-ton girders with a minimum of safety gear. But engineers are planning to also use a new technology — building by computer.The Self-Rising Factory is a set of computerized cranes and lifts surrounded by a weatherproof enclosure. According to a precise schedule, the steel beams are essentially handed to the machinery which then places them for workers to bolt together. Once the beams and concrete panels for eac h floor are complete, the machinery hoists the entire structure and the process starts over. Gibraltar Bridge A bridge spanning 9 miles over the Straits of Gibraltar at the entryway to the Mediterranean would be the longest and tallest ever built.It would connect cultures of Christianity and Islam and potentially increase ties between the economies of Europe and Africa. Stats: Location: Strait of Gibraltar. Links Spain and Morocco. Length: 9 miles, Two spans of 4 1/2 miles each Height: Each tower is 3,000 feet tall (twice as high as the world's tallest skyscraper) Width: 5 traffic lanes, 2 breakdown lanes in each direction Road Deck Material: Fiberglass Length of Wire Cables: 1,000,000 miles (Enough to circle the Earth almost 30 times) Closest living relative: Akashi bridge in Japan, world's longest suspension bridge at 12,828 feet.Cost: $15 billion Dangers: Wind speeds of 80 mph at tops of towers, ship collision, ocean currents, traffic, Sahara Desert dust storms Building a bridge the size and configuration of Gibraltar Bridge is usually protected by artificial islands so that ships run aground before they can do any damage to the structure. But building an artificial island in the ocean isn't an option. Instead designers envision a ring of underwater bumpers to withstand ship collisions. This could be impossible to span a 9-mile bridge but actually, they can.When determining the exact size of the bridge, designers had to choose between a shallow area that spanned 20 miles, which would have meant many piers in a busy shipping zone, and a narrow portion that's 2,700 feet deep. But designers lucked out. After closer inspection of the narrow portion revealed an underwater â€Å"mountain† in the center that could hold the center piers, dividing the bridge into to spans of 4 1/2 miles each. 5 lanes of traffic in either direction will flow over a roadbed made of spun glass.Fiberglass materials of this sort are rated 5 times stronger than concrete, and any cr acks or other damage could be isolated due to its web-like internal structure. Engineers say fiberglass bridge materials can last up to 100 years. They're also easier to install. A concrete roadway on the Gibraltar Bridge would take 3 months to pour as opposed to a few days or weeks with fiberglass. Freedom Ship Freedom Ship's designers originally planned to create an island community to provide Hong Kong-based businesses a place to relocate if the handover of that city to China were to make life difficult for them.When they applied the same model to a moving sea platform, they ended up with what would be the largest ocean-going vessel ever constructed — the minimum requirement for a city at sea. Stats: Length: Approximately 1 mile Width: 3 city blocks (4,320 feet) Height: 25 stories Weight: 3 million tons Volume: Titanic, Queen Mary, USS Nimitz and super-tanker Jahre Viking would all fit comfortably inside. Population: 50,000 residents, 15,000 workers, 20,000 visitors/day Co nstruction: Hull composed of 600 120'x100†² steel cells bolted together.Location: Circles globe every two years Closest Living Relative: Japan's Megafloat Airport, Tokyo Bay (1km long, 70 meters wide, 20 meters depth) (Series of interlocking pressurized steel boxes) Power: 100 electric podded propulsers at 3500 horsepower each. Cost: $9 billion Freedom Ship's designers say it will be able to handle tidal waves and large-scale hurricanes by steering out of their way to avoid them altogether. If a confrontation is unavoidable, they'll turn all of the ship's 100 propellers, pointing towards the center of the ship for stability.The ship's hull is composed of 600 huge air-tight steel boxes. A significant number of these would have to be punctured before residents noticed anything amiss. Freedom Ship's designers call it a floating sea platform. In simliar design, Japan's MegaFloat airport id built out of steel boxes bolted together to form a surface on the water. Whereas the airport is moored to keep it from drifting, Freedom Ship would be mobile. A structure this size couldn't be built in a traditional manner at a shipbuilding facility and subsequently be lauched into the sea.The construction on this project would instead take place in the water, with large pieces floated out to be attached on the site. Freedom Ship's designers aim to create a new lifestyle. Residents will have a homelife while constantly traveling. The ship would be like a â€Å"Disneyland† offshore, entertaining tourists with the amenities of a resort while residents enjoy daytrips in each port. If successfully built The Freedom Ship will be the largest ocean going vessel in history, it will become a luxury city afloat travelling the world.

Edgar Allan Poe s `` The Cask Of Amontillado `` And `` A...

Readers Response Edgar Allan Poe is an American writer who is famous for his tales and poems of horror, and mystery. Mr. Poe s short stories and poems captured the imagination and interest of readers around the world. His creative talents led to the beginning of different literary genres earning him the nickname Father of the Detective Story among other distinctions. His life however, has become a bit of a mystery itself, and the lines between fact and fiction have been blurred substantially since his death. By 1845 Poe became a literary sensation due to the publication of the poem The Raven. It is considered a great American literary work and one of the best of Poe s career. In the work, Poe examined his own methodology and writing in general in several short stories including, The Cask of Amontillado, and A Tell Tale Heart. In the story A Tell Tale Heart Poe writes the story in first person. Throughout this story Poe is trying to catch an audience s attention who is interested in the workings o f the human mind. As you read this story you will see the breakdown of the human mind and how paranoia and insanity go hand in hand. The narrator sees the eyes of the old man as that of a vulture, a pale blue eye, with a film over it. Whenever it fell upon me, my blood ran cold.( Page 922). Because of the old man s eye the narrators paranoia makes him feel that he must kill the old man to rid myself of the eye forever ( Page 922). Insanity is anotherShow MoreRelatedAn Analysis Of Edgar Allan Poe s The Tell Tale Heart 1015 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"Insane in the Membrane† Edgar Allan Poe is one of the most acclaimed short story writers of all time and is considered the father of the psychological thriller. He has achieved ever-lasting fame for his work in various fields of literature, from prose to verse. However, it is his Gothic narrative, in the short story realm he is greatest known for and is regarded as one of the foremost masters of horror that the United States has ever fashioned. The crucial component to these horror stories isRead MoreEdgar Allan Poe Revlutionized Literature in the 19th Century665 Words   |  3 PagesEdgar Allan Poe revolutionized the literary world of the nineteenth century. Poe is a well-known author from the early 1800’s, who was part of the dark romanticism movement. While later in life he was a brilliant writer, Edgar Allan Poe faced many problems in his early life. Although Poe experienced death within his family at a young age, the hardships he encountered are thought to have influenced his dark writing sty le. These death inspired elements within Poe’s writing were ahead of their timeRead MoreEdgar Allan Poe s The Tell Tale Heart1538 Words   |  7 PagesPotentially Mad, Potentially Genius: Edgar Allan Poe’s Style â€Å"True!—nervous—very, very dreadfully nervous I had been and am; but why will you say that I am mad?† Poe wrote this line in his â€Å"The Tell-Tale Heart,† and he very well could have been speaking about himself. Many generations have debated on whether or not Edgar Allen Poe was a mad. Reviewers and readers have looked at Poe’s work for nearly two centuries, trying to pick it apart and see if it’s the ramblings of a mad man or well piecedRead MoreEdgar Allan Poe s The Cask Of Amontillado1232 Words   |  5 Pagesabout the text â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† by Edgar Allan Poe, some sources will be used to support the thesis statement, which is â€Å"The author uses irony in the text to illustrate the murder of Fortunado by Montresor, who seeks salvation through death†. Also, there is going to be an analysis on the irony found in the text in relation with the story. To support this thesis, I am going to use some examples from some sources such as â€Å"Literary analysis: Irony in The Cask of Amontillado by Amelia TibbettRead MoreThe Final Days of Edgar Allan Poe by Roger Francis 1732 Words   |  7 PagesEdgar Allan Poe is regarded as one of the most influential American writers of the nineteenth-century. Poe’s short stories posses the recurring themes of death, murder and his narrators often show signs of mental instability, like the old man in â€Å"The Tell-Tale Heart† and Montressor in â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado†. Since tragedy was prominent throughout Poe’s life, his work reflects the darkness ingrained by continuously being faced with adversity. Poe’s mental stability also comes into question whenRead MoreEdgar Allan Poe s Three Techniques For Dark Writing999 Words   |  4 PagesEdgar Allan Poe s Three Techniques for Dark Writing Edgar Allan Poe is a poet who makes his poetry very strong, dark and suspenseful; to do this Poe uses imagery, mood and tone. These three techniques help create a feeling of horror. â€Å"The Cask of the Amontillado†, â€Å" The Raven†, and â€Å"The Tale Tell Heart† are the three stories that show these techniques clearly. Imagery is represented to help the atmosphere have horror and it helps the reader see what s going on in the story. In â€Å"The Cask ofRead MoreThe Tell Tale Heart And The Cask Of Amontillado1153 Words   |  5 Pagesstories: The Tell-Tale Heart and the Cask of Amontillado, both by Edgar Allan Poe. I am going to compare and contrast these 2 stories by showing you how different yet similar they are. I believe that if you dig down deep enough you will find that even if you didn t know that they were both written by Edgar Allan Poe, you would have been able to guess it. He has a distinct style of writing. Many, if not all, of his short stories have unwelcoming endings and a sort of dark glamour. Edgar Allan Poe was bornRead MoreThe Cask Of Amontillado Character Analysis3502 Words   |  15 PagesRevenge in Edgar Allan Poe s The Cask of Amontillado Edgar Allan Poe s short story The Cask of Amontillado was first published in an 1846 issue of Godey s Lady s Book, a popular women s magazine in America (Nagy). Poe s tale of premeditated murder is narrated by a smug Montresor, who feels vindicated after disposing of his enemy by walling him up in the catacombs. Yet, it is not only the premeditated murder that makes this tale horrifying. Part of the terror of The Cask of Amontillado occursRead MoreAnalysis Of Edgar Allan Poe s Writing1561 Words   |  7 PagesHumberto Orozco Mahoney 1102 MW 10:50 11/22/2015 E.A.P Edgar Allan Poe is famous for writing short stories that are themed particularly around death and the macabre. His writing includes horrific scenes with gruesome deaths and murders. Poe’s style of writing is very much on a podium of its own. He was a brilliant writer for his time period. His wicked works continue to grab the attention of readers with his dark and scary form of writing. His short stories are typical of describing the twistedRead MoreThe Father Of American Detective1923 Words   |  8 PagesShort Story-Edgar Allan Poe Edgar Allan Poe is far more than a poet and short story writer of the early 19th century. Poe is, in many ways, the most crucial writer of the period. The inventor of the detective story, and the creator of Gothic horror stories. He continues to capture the imagination and inspire literature more than one hundred and fifty years after his death. In examining his life, the critical reaction to his work, and his short story masterpiece â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado,† it has been