The Tower Of The Ruins Of Jericho - 858 Words

Stairs are one of the oldest structures in architectural history. They have always been an important part of a building or structure because without them you wouldn’t be able to get from the bottom to the top or vice versa. There is no actual answer of when the very first set of stairs was created. But there has been several sources say that the oldest surviving stairs are found in the ruins of Jericho. There are claims that these stairs are over 7,000 years old. This could mean that stairs were at the very birth of civilization itself. One of the first types of stairs used in history were not made on purpose but were just worn down when they were used as rocks to climb on or foot holes to get around easier. There was a time when chopped wood trunks constructed together to make levels, but these were not used in buildings, they were used to overcome the difficulties of the harsh terrain of the mountains and valleys. These were used as a survival tool the less time you had moving around in the harsh woods when you could use the tree trunks to get to a higher and safer place. At the start stairs ad started off as a survival tool, then moved onto having purpose for people to get from on area to another used a necessity in a building or structure, to being the core design feature of a building. They were made only for a purpose not for a design feature of a structure. The changes in stairs have varied over the years as to who designed them and the different trends ofShow MoreRelatedThe Birth of Civilization18947 Words   |  76 Pagesthis village pattern. Çatal Hà ¼yà ¼k, in a fertile agricultural region of present-day Turkey, was a large town with astonishingly diversified agriculture, arts, and crafts. At an oasis near the Dead Sea, the town of Jericho was surrounded by a massive stone wall with at least one tower against the inner face. No other Neolithic settlement has been found with fortifications. These two sites show that the economies and settlement patterns of the Neolithic period may have been more complicated than

Police Culture Free Essays

Police Culture in the United States Team B: Sean Milton, Shane Hunter, Joshua Nine, Tim Eichler, and Jason Fougere CJA/214 November 20, 2012 Bernard Fitchpatrick Needs to be 1,050-1400 words Police Culture in the United States Analyze police culture, including the significance of stress in policing The study in police culture started in 1960 and the 1970’s by the work of Cain and Banton in the United Kingdom and Skolnick and Westlesy in the United States. Even though the study work wasn’t specifically concerned with police culture but rather sociological analysis of police officer and police work, it provided a wealth of material through the observation and analysis that was then later used to help formulate the theories of police culture. The characteristics of police culture have tended to remain static since the early days when first police researching program started. We will write a custom essay sample on Police Culture or any similar topic only for you Order Now The literature on the police culture remained uncontenious for many years. Once the research started the results were rarely challenged and it is in only recent years that anyone has begun to see a body of work that is questioning these ‘core assumptions’ (Chan, 1997) about policing that has emanated from a culture analysis. It makes the police more then rather than less human than they have and reproduce their own culture. The police officer job is a very stressful job in many aspects, the occupational stressors as a cop rank most highly within the population were not specific to policing. The organization issues such as the demands of work impinging upon the life at home, lack of consultation and communication, the lack of control over workload, and the support and excess workload in general. The most recent study confirms previous findings of organization culture and workload as the key issues in officer stress. Given that the degree that symptomatology appears to be worsening, management action is required. Further research is indicated within the police population into a possible increased susceptibility in female officer proven by research. Analyze the culture for women and ethnic minorities in policing and how they can achieve equality in law enforcement Describe the internal and external mechanisms that control police discretion Conclusion * References * Grant, H. B. Terry, K. J. 2012. Law Enforcement in the 21st Century, 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson/Prentice Hall. * Walker, S. Katz, C. M. 2011. The Police in America: An Introduction, 7th ed. New York, NY. McGraw-Hill. * University of Phoenix. (2011). CJ Interactive [Multimedia]. Retrieved from University of Phoenix, CJA214 website. * * * * How to cite Police Culture, Essay examples Police culture Free Essays Police Culture Number 8 powerpoint (Definition)The knowledge, attitudes, expectations, behaviours and rituals that exist amongst police, or which more broadly, characterize a police force. Police Culture affects: how police see themselves and their role as police how they see the world around them, how they police (how policing is performed). Differences exist within and between police cultures. We will write a custom essay sample on Police culture or any similar topic only for you Order Now Police officers, as individuals, will not all equally adopt or adhere to the dominant police culture. Police culture cannot be divorced from the social, political, economic, legal and organizational context of policing. Police cultures can change. Police Culture: Characteristics Sense of Mission: the thin blue line’ A crucial, dangerous but thankless Job ,Not Just a Job, but a way of life0 Policing thought of as protecting the weak from the strong (not at all political, relating to power within society). o ‘Us versus them’ mentality evident Law enforcers and law abiders versus law breakers Action Orientated: ‘Real Policing’ Emphasis on ‘real policing as that which occurs in the public sphere and which involves dangerous or potentially dangerous situations and confrontations. ?(ie. responding to reports of rime, raids, shoot outs, car pursuits and so on). Greatest status attached to Homicide Squads and Tactical Response Units. Cynicism and Pragmatism Required to obey law, yet see law as limiting and naive Must go beyond the law, to do their Job and get results. Favour expedience over due process These characteristics of police culture have been related to various negative behaviours: Unlawful detentiono- The improper use of force0- Breaches of proper interview processes – Corruptiono- Dismissal of some crimes/victimso- Commission of some offences Isolation and Solidarity Feel different from other people based on work and work-related xperiences. Sense of isolation intensified by problems socializing with non-police due to others reactions, difficulties turning off, shift work. Closest bonds forged with other police Very loyal to, and protective of, other officers MasculinistDominance of masculinist perspectives and practices. Reiner has described police culture as an ‘old – Ofashioned world of machismo’. ‘Real policing’ associated with confrontation, physical strength, danger Male-dominated composition of police forces has contributed to this. Racism Widely documented evidence of suspicion, hostility and rejudice in police dealings with racial and ethnic minorities. Evidenced in well- known instances (ie. Rodney King) through to everyday policing practices. Once again partly attributable to historical composition of police forces. Also relates to their role acting on behalf of states to administer racially- Obased laws and policies (segregation, removal of indigenous children). 7. Conservatismo Social and politically conservative. Emphasis upon maintaining the status quo. Once again, partly a consequence of historical composition and role of police Approaches to policing and the community Number 9 Traditional Policing- (as developed with rise of modern police forces). Community Policing (developed over past 30, largely in response to concerns raised over the methods and outcomes ot traditional policing. ) Traditional Policing: Police seen as separate from the community ,Role of the police is to respond to crime. ,Police effectiveness is measured by changes in crime rates and arrest rates. Concerned primarily with the policing of public sphere, rather than private sphere. Use of force is viewed as legitimate and necessary to Opreservation of order – militarization of police over past 40 y ears with rise of law and order. Community Policing The development of community policing was based upon recognition that a lack of familiarity and respect between police and specific communities sometimes resulted in negative and repressive policing practices being used, and the fostering of mutual suspicion and antagonism between police and communities. Young people? gays and lesbians, indigenous people, ethnic and racial minorities recognized as particularly affected. What is Community Policing? No universally accepted definition of community policing. As an approach to policing, it can best be described as onsisting of a broad range of strategies designed to improve policing by connecting police more closely to local communities and supporting relationships. Includes programs such as: 0 Neighbourhood Watch 0 Crime Stoppers00 Blue-light Discos School Education Programs Development of specific community policing units The appointment of Liaison Officers (such as: YLOs /0MLOs ) and committees involving police and community members . Formalised relationships with other community agencies0(for example, sexual assault and domestic violence services, ambulance services, welfare service). Reform of procedures for dealing with some types of ffences – SOCIT (Secual Offences and Child Abuse Investigation Teams Increased police presence, visibility and availability (for example, police on bicycles, shop fronts) Use of media to involve public in policing and crime prevention Police organising and hosting activities and programs – particularly for young people (such as the Ropes Program) Police learning and demonstrating the ‘art of negotiation’ with difficult groups Police taking a more gentle/balanced approach to policing Community Policing Compared to the traditional approach to policing, community policing Aims to be more pro-active and pre-emptive. More concerned with peacekeeping and conflict resolution than crime fighting0 Based on complexities of local context and on building relationships Envisages police as part of the community and as needing to be responsive and answerable to it. How to cite Police culture, Papers

Communication and Information Technologies Annual †Free Samples

Question: Discuss about the Communication and Information Technologies Annual. Answer: Introduction The present study focuses on the digital gap between the urban and sub- urban in Australia. The research framework based on the theoretical gaps and empirical gaps is outlined in this paper. Four main kinds of variables including -independent variable, dependent variable, moderating and mediating variable as the consistency factor on the relationship between independent and dependent variable are also illustrated in this study. The conceptual framework proposing hypothesized model is also discussed in this research study. These variables are further justified by using journals in the last section of the research study. Australia like several other developed countries is rapidly shifting towards highly digitalized society (Thomas et al., 2016). Despite several policy interventions by the Australian government, the sub-urban areas of this nation continue to be at digital disadvantage. There are several barriers that make it highly difficult for the enterprises as well as rural residents to participate in and attain benefit from increasing digital economy. On the contrary, the urban areas are developing at high rate owing to this digitization. This paper thereby presents evidences about the digital gap between the urban and sub-urban areas in Australia. In fact, mixed methods involving secondary and primary methods are adopted while conducting this research study. Research Framework based on the theoretical and empirical gap The digital gap signifies the gap between the people having accessibility to ICT (information and communication technologies) and those people who do not have. Although advancement in technologies has created huge opportunities to the people of the developing nations, gap still occurs between the people residing in sub-urban and urban areas (Thomas et al., 2016). As a result, this creates imbalance in the economys formation and the loss in the business. It has been stated by the OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation Development) that, digital gap is the division between the geographical areas, business and the individuals relating to accessibility of ICT and utilization of internet for huge range of activities (Sarkar, 2012). According to Ragnedda Muschert (2013), there are mainly four types of barriers to access ICT or digital facilities services, which involve- material access, use access, mental access and skill access. In addition to this, another barrier that occurs is th e lack of accessibility owing to shortage of services and equipments such as computer networking, computer hardware etc. Furthermore, skill accessibility concerns with deficiency of the digital skills due to lack of training, education and so on. Another digital barrier that occurs mainly describes lack of few opportunities which undermines utilization of facility. It has been suggested by Imperial Oliver (2012) that, digital gap not only involves technological issues such as capacity, usability, high ICT cost but also is related to socio- economic issues. All these issues including non- technical as well as technical have direct impact on the ICT literacy level, which in turn consequently increases the digital gap. Recent evidences on digital gap in Australia signifies that despite significant rise in utilization level of internet, gap results from these factors involving lack of education, affordability, accessibility, age, digital ability etc (Alam Salahuddin, 2015). Some facts also reflects that even though there has been rise in usage of computer and access of internet across the rural and urban areas, digital gap within these two areas has been increasing. In fact, some researchers identifies that affordability is one of the main barriers to utilization of internet. Affordability involves two components such as Value and relative expenditure. The gap between digitally excluded and included Australians have been widening over the years. van Deursen Helsper (2015) opines that the people residing in this nation with low income level, less education and employment are less digitally involved. Moreover, there are still digital gap between the richer and poorer people residing in this nation. It has been argued by Buckingham Willett (2013) that, age is another division that is related with the digital gap. Recent facts reflect that teenagers are keener to adopt innovations and hence accepted ICT more as compared to older generations. Even in Australia, the internet users are majorly the younger generations residing in urban areas as compared to sub-urban areas. Additionally, accessibility also contributes to digital gap between the sub-urban and urban areas (Thomas et al., 2016). Accessibility mainly consists of three components including internet access, internet data allowance and internet technology. It has been found out by Vrallyai Herdon, (2013) that, few indigenous communities residing in sub-urban areas of Australia still do not have accessibility to Internet at their residence. However, Australia government has taken few measures for improving accessibility of ICT in sub-urban areas. Digital ability is also another factor that contributes to digital gap between the sub-urban and urban areas in Australia. Digital ability includes three components such as- basic kills, activities and attitudes of people. As digital ability in sub-urban areas is lower than that of urban areas of this nation, the government of Australia has adopted several measures in order to bridge this gap. The TAM (Technology Acceptance Model) developed by David is an appropriate theoretical model that predicts acceptance as well as use of ICT (Davis, 1985). It is regarded as one of the most influential model that explains ICT implementation and utilization behavior. These theories basically emphasize behavioral attitudes, individuals rational behavior and actual use. TAM is mainly used in this study for illustrating accessibility, digital ability, internet use, affordability, internet literacy etc. Moreover, this theory helps to conduct the research about the digital gap between the urban and sub-urban areas of Australia. This section reflects the facts of the research study based on empirical evidences. The ADII ( Australian Digital Inclusion Index) measures the extent of digital inclusion or the gap between these two areas of this nation. The score of ADII and the data produced by the ABS ( Australian Bureau of Statistics) reflects that the digital gap between sub-urban and urban areas of this country has been reducing over the last few years. However, the increase in ADII score over the time has been mainly driven by huge improvement in digital ability and accessibility (Thomas et al., 2016). On the contrary, the decrease in affordability score reflects that this aspect has not improved over the years. All the three components of accessibility have improved constantly. Internet accessibility in rural areas increased from 82.7 in the year 2014 to 85.3 in the year 2017. Moreover, the scores of both internet technology as well as data allowance also improved in this area over the last four years. Inte rnet data allowance increased from 41.6 in 2014- 51.2 in 2017 while technology score increased from 62.3 in 2014- 72.1 in 2017 (Thomas et al., 2016). The internet accessibility score in urban areas reflects steady rate during these years. Likewise, components of the digital ability also improved in both sub-urban and urban areas of this nation over time (Jaeger et al., 2012). The score of basic skill component increased from 47.2 to 53.3 while activities score increased from 34.2 to 38.4 during these years. Despite these components enhanced over the years, the improvement rate has slowed down. On the other hand, the decrease in affordability component signifies increasing cost of internet services. Additionally, the expenditure value component increased constantly over the last four years. As a result, the peoples expense on this also increases at high rate. Few recent facts reflect that the people living in sub-urban areas of this country spend less on internet services. Owing to r ise in cost of internet services, these people could not afford to purchase this service. However, the Australian government implemented measures of reducing this internet service cost, which in turn increased the spending of the people residing in sub-urban areas. Henceforth, the digital gap decreased slightly over these years (Allington McGill-Franzen, 2012). As stated above that gender also contributes to digital gap, it has been seen that females in this nation use less internet as compared to males. The data given by ABS also supports this fact that near about 53% of the males utilize internet in comparison with 47% of females. Other factors that the researcher identifies contributes to this digital gap involves income, location, education, culture, age etc (DiMaggio Hargittai, 2001). As suggested by Allington McGill-Franzen (2012), the education as well as income level is the vital determinants of the society accessibility to internet. In fact, the data provided by the ABS signifies that the household in this nation that are less likely to connect with internet have some special features involving low income of households, children under the age of 15 years and being situated in remote sub-urban areas. Variable is anything which takes varying values and might differ at different times for same person or object. In this study, four vital variables are illustrated, which includes- independent, dependent, moderating and mediating. Independent variables refer to the variable that affects the dependent variable either positively or negatively. Therefore, for per unit rise in independent variable, there is either increase or decrease in dependent variable. In this study, the independent variables are affordability, accessibility, gender, age, digital disability, income, education and so on. Dependent variable is considered to be as the major variable, which lends itself to make investigation as viable factor. Independent variables are mainly based on the dependent variable. In this study, the dependent variable is the ICT at which the independent variables are based. A moderating variable is the variable that has strong impact on the relationship between the dependent and independent variable. The existence of this variable basically modifies the relation between the dependent and independent variable. In this case, the moderating variable is the influence of the independent variables including- affordability, accessibility, digital ability, income, education, gender, age etc on the ICT, which is taken as dependent variable. Mediating variables are the one that occurs between the time independent variables begins operating to impact dependent variables and that time its impact is felt. This variable occurs as function of independent variables that operates in any circumstances and facilitates to conceptualize as well as explain influence of independent variable on dependent variable. In this study, it has been highlighted that accessibility to ICT is the mediating variable that leads to digital gap. The hypothesis has been proposed in order to test the validity of the research study that aligns with digital gap between sub-urban and urban areas in Australia. The hypotheses that are proposed for this study are given below: Justifying the above mentioned variable of the research study It has been opined by Beena Mathur (2012) that, social as well as economic factors including income, education and age are more closely linked with accessibility and utilization of ICT as compared to other factors. Imperial Oliver (2012) suggests that the teenagers and students have the potentiality to bridge this digital gap. Some researchers have found out that the students in the sub-urban areas of this nation are not furnished enough with the basic ICT skills. However, their ICT capabilities are basically low as compared to the students of urban areas. According to Fraillon, Schulz Ainley (2013), ICT skills are vital prerequisites for the information literacy and learning. Macdonald Clayton (2013) opines that education also widens the digital gap between the urban and sub-urban areas. Recent evidences reflects that the total number of people living in urban areas receive proper education with internet access as compared to people living in rural areas. It has been stated by W illis Tranter (2006) that, the existence of digital gap owing to age is also apparent in sub-urban areas as compared to urban areas. Relatively the younger generations in sub urban areas are found to use internet more than that of older generations. Recent study highlights that in few sub-urban areas of this nation, accessibility of internet services increased and digital ability also improved. At the same time, it has been found out that affordability remains vital problem in these areas of this nation. The Australian government has taken few measures in order to bridge the gap between the urban and sub-urban areas. The policymakers have introduced education programs on ICT in the sub-urban areas in order to reduce this gap (Lopez, Gonzalez-Barrera Patten, 2013). Buckingham Willett (2013) found out that rapid development of information society has basically innovated new imperatives for the policymakers for bridging the digital gap. However, it can be predicted that the digital gap between these two areas will reduce in future. Conclusion The above research framework reflects that while utilization of internet has been increasing significantly, digital gap persists between urban and sub-urban areas of this nation. It has been evident from the empirical evidences that the digital gap has been decreasing between these two areas despite ICTs affordability of people decline over the last few years. However, it will be difficult for the policymakers to reduce the digital gap between urban and sub-urban areas if the problems such as ICTs affordability, literacy and people income remain unresolved. Furthermore, increasing ICT cost to rural users due to low power of earning and deficiency of training resources widens the digital gap. However, it is necessary for the Australian government to provide more support in order to reduce the gap. References Alam, K., Salahuddin, M. (2015). Assessing digital divide and its determinants: a case study of households perception in the Western Downs region of Queensland. Allington, R. L., McGill-Franzen, A. (Eds.). (2012).Summer reading: Closing the rich/poor reading achievement gap. Teachers College Press. Beena, M., Mathur, M. (2012). Role of ict education for women empowerment.International Journal of Economics and Research,3(3), 164-172. Broadbent, R., Papadopoulos, T. (2013). Bridging the digital dividean Australian story.Behaviour Information Technology,32(1), 4-13. Buckingham, D., Willett, R. (Eds.). (2013).Digital generations: Children, young people, and the new media. Routledge. Davis, F. D. (1985).A technology acceptance model for empirically testing new end-user information systems: Theory and results(Doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology). DiMaggio, P., Hargittai, E. (2001). From the digital divideto digital inequality: Studying Internet use as penetration increases.Princeton: Center for Arts and Cultural Policy Studies, Woodrow Wilson School, Princeton University,4(1), 4-2. Fraillon, J., Schulz, W., Ainley, J. (2013). International computer and information literacy study: Assessment framework. Imperial, C., Oliver, G. (2012). New Digital Literacies Research in High Schools A Review of Literature. Jaeger, P. T., Bertot, J. C., Thompson, K. M., Katz, S. M., DeCoster, E. J. (2012). The intersection of public policy and public access: Digital divides, digital literacy, digital inclusion, and public libraries.Public Library Quarterly,31(1), 1-20. Lopez, M. H., Gonzalez-Barrera, A., Patten, E. (2013). Closing the digital divide: Latinos and technology adoption. Macdonald, S. J., Clayton, J. (2013). Back to the future, disability and the digital divide.Disability Society,28(5), 702-718. Ragnedda, M., Muschert, G. W. (Eds.). (2013).The digital divide: The Internet and social inequality in international perspective(Vol. 73). Routledge. Sarkar, S. (2012). The role of information and communication technology (ICT) in higher education for the 21st century.Science,1(1), 30-41. Thomas, J., Barraket, J., Ewing, S., MacDonald, T., Mundell, M., Tucker, J. (2016). Measuring Australia's Digital Divide: The Australian Digital Inclusion Index 2016. van Deursen, A. J., Helsper, E. J. (2015). The third-level digital divide: Who benefits most from being online?. InCommunication and information technologies annual(pp. 29-52). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Vrallyai, L., Herdon, M. (2013). Reduce the digital gap by increasing e-skills.Procedia Technology,8, 340-348. Willis, S., Tranter, B. (2006). Beyond the digital divide Internet diffusion and inequality in Australia.Journal of sociology,42(1), 43-59.

Lyndon Baines Johnson free essay sample

A paper on the life history of Lyndon Baines Johnson. In this research paper on LBJ, the author tries to show how LBJs early life in public office would eventually affect his decisions as Senate Majority leader, Vice President, and President. The author shows that many of the policies set in place by Johnson proved to be groundbreaking legislation, but that his involvement in Vietnam would, in the end, be his downfall. Lyndon Baines Johnson was the embodiment of American ideals. He served his country as a representative, a senator, a vice-president, and then, finally, as President of the United States. President Johnson was able to accomplish great things during his years in Washington, and as one expert stated, the American political system, under the leadership of a man who knew what made it tick, was able to work efficiently and productively to an extent not seen since and not often before. We will write a custom essay sample on Lyndon Baines Johnson or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page 1 Through all of his years as a public servant, LBJ never lost sight of the American people and their problems. He sought to make life better for the working class citizen through each bill he signed and each program that he founded.

Parents Love Essay Sample

Parents Love Essay SampleThe parents love essay sample is a wonderful place to find sample writing for your child. This could include so many things as homework assignments, poems, and much more. You can also find online practice writing, book reports, short stories, and even full-length novels.Sample works will help you determine if you want to write a work of literature, a short story, or perhaps even a longer novel. It will also provide you with a great idea of what types of essays you should not write for your child. This also helps you to be better at planning your writing and knowing how your child will respond to your ideas. Most importantly, a sample assignment will let you know what kind of writer you are.Many of us have a very difficult time expressing ourselves and expressing our feelings in our own parents love essay. This may be because our parents love us so much that they would rather our child do the same. If this is true, then you might be able to do it much easier i f you provide your child with an assignment like this one.Will it help? Yes, but only up to a point. The more you show your child how much you love them, the more of a bond you will create.Writing an essay has the potential to strengthen this bond as well. That means the more you are able to show them how much you love them, the better their bond will be.What are some examples of topics that can be found in a parents love essay? You might find your child likes a scene in a movie, a favorite poem, a piece of music, etc. This is all a good place to start if you would like to find a great way to express yourself and let them know how much you care. Once again, this is just a starting point.I encourage you to use the parents love essay sample to provide your child with lots of ideas on how to express themselves. They may be writing their own later in life, so this can serve as their guide for how to do it. This can be a really great way to help your child develop a sense of writing.

An evaluation of Repetitive Stress Injury (RSI) The WritePass Journal

An evaluation of Repetitive Stress Injury (RSI) Introduction An evaluation of Repetitive Stress Injury (RSI) IntroductionResearch evaluating the upper limb tension testMethodologyParticipantsProcedure  Data AnalysisRESULTSNature of the perceived sensory response and difference between the mouse and the non mouse handLocation of the perceived sensory responseDiscussion:Summary of the resultsTheoretical Implication:Clinical Implication:Strength of the studyLimitationsScope for future researchConclusionREFERENCESRelated Introduction The incidence of repetitive injury has steadily increased over the past decade and evidence indicates that this trend will continue. (Millender et al 1992, Byng et al 1997). In UK according to the NHS report, 1 in 50 workers has reported symptoms of repetitive stress injury (RSI) (Scot et al 2008). More recently there have been reports of increase in RSI among computer operators (Anderson et al 2008) reason being their repetitive jobs at faster pace. There is also research which reads that forcefulness and awkward position of upper limb have a direct effect on the development of repetitive stress injury (Greening et al 1999). Even though RSI is common, the causes of RSI are complex, diverse and incompletely understood till today. Amongst the most various hypotheses suggested over decades there is some evidence of involving the whole nociceptive system (Brain 2009). With respect to the RSI in upper limb, commonly reported symptoms by patients are cramps, par aesthesia, and hyperalgesia, with no major motor or sensory involvement (Scott et al 2008). And after reviewing these symptoms again and again the nervous system is said to be certainly involved directly or indirectly in all the patients of overuse injury of upper limb (Reisch et al 2005). It were these studies that have given birth to concept called Neurodynamic in the world of physiotherapy (Shacklock 1995) Neurodynamics has become progressively more accepted as part of the evaluation and management of the repetitive injuries (Blaster et al 1997). The ULTT was initially thought by Elvey (1979) as an objective assessment of the neural tissue of the upper quadrant in the examination of arm pain and local pain pattern of the upper quadrant. Fundamentals of neurodynamic testing are that the nervous system exists in physiological and mechanical continuity (Slater ET al1994). This means that when mechanical stresses when applied on the nerve may evoke physiological responses such as alteration in axonal transport or may be interneural blood flow. And physiological disturbances like diabetes may predispose a nerve to mechanical disturbances (Mackinnon et al1986). Physiotherapists’ incorporating tension tests as a part of assessment and treatment have documented that altered nerve extensibility and is a very common finding in RSI disorders. In   conjunction with symptomatology and subjective responses to these techniques, difference in the range of motion (ROM), difference in perceived response etc   between the affected and the non affected are often considered indicative of adverse neural tension, with implied assumption that such differences are not apparent in asymptomatic subjects (Butler 1989). Such assumption questions the evidence based practise and the validity of these tests (Sackett. et al 1996) Research evaluating the upper limb tension test Shacklock in 1995 concluded that ULTT for median nerve is a simple, effective and reliable method of examination to gain an impression of nerve mobility after performing test on cadavers. In 2005 Resich et al performed a study to measure the reliability and sensory response of median nerve biased on normal subjects. The limitation of the study was that it was done just on one side of body of normal individual. This therefore did not allow assessing if any variability or response existed in left and right side. Also the study was done on non keyboard workers thus the results cannot be generalised. Byng et al in 1997 conducted a research to compare the response of ULTT median nerve in asymptomatic, symptomatic key board workers and non keyboard workers. The results concluded that there was a variation in response to the nerve test among the three groups with keyboard workers having significant altered neural sensitivity when compared to non keyboard workers there by concluding the pain in key board workers is neural in origin. The shortcoming of this study was that there is no information regarding what was considered as a normal response at individual joint as there was only unilateral comparison.   Scott et al in 2008 performed a study to determine the false positive ULTT and slumps tests in healthy adults and reported there are false positive response in asymptomatic. But the study was just performed on dominant side of the body thus there can be no comparison and these results cannot be expected for the opposite arm. Also the mean age of participants was only 22 years thus cannot be generalized. Since the researchers knew the dominant side this may have contaminated the result. Thus ULTT is an undoubtedly simple, effective and reliable method of examination to gain an impression of nerve mobility but no trial has attempted to compare the variability of the neural tension test response bilaterally in normals. Without this bit of information the validity of the ULTT is questionable. Thus the aim of the study is to evaluate if there is any difference in mechano sensitivity and perceived response to median nerve ULTT test when compared bilaterally in non symptomatic female key board worker. Methodology Participants Inclusion criteria for the study were: asymptomatic female key board operators between the ages of 18- 60 years without any sensory problem of upper limb and/or neck within the last three months. Participants who complained of bit of neck pain on prolonged hours of sitting which did not radiate to shoulder or upper limb were included.   Subjects were excluded if they reported any contraindication and/or precaution (Butler, 1991) like   peripheral or central nervous system disease or medical metabolic disease like diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis. They were also excluded if they had reduced range of motion of the upper limb and cervical spine. Thirty female asymptomatic key board operators volunteered for the study (mean   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  age 31  ± 6.8 years; range: 24-54 years). Prior to the study all the participants read participation information sheet and signed consent form.   There after participants filled the evaluation form which was regarding inclusion criteria, years of experience, hours of work per day and arm dominance. Arm dominance was defined as the hand participants used for operating the mouse also referred to as mouse hand in the study. Participants were requested not to disclose information regarding their mouse hand during the study. The information pertaining arm dominance was blinded to both the researchers as it was known only after the application of ULTT1 test. Procedure Ethical approval was granted by the Committee on Ethics in Research at Sheffield Hallam University.   After the participants had filled the evaluation form and the participant was eligible for the study screening movements were performed on the cervical spine, thoracic spine and of both the upper limb to abolish these structures as potential resources of symptoms. Two researchers were involved in the study. Both were students of Msc Applying Physiotherapy at Sheffield Hallam University. The author was the primary researcher who performed ULTT1 on all the participants in both hands. The second researcher only assisted to record the response to ULTT1 on body chart. The method adopted to perform ULTT for median nerve was the test proposed by Elvey 1986, Kenneally et al 1988 and Butler 1991a. David Butler in 1991a conveyed ULTT1 to be median nerve dominant and was reliable in normal’s (Edgar et al 1994) and in patient population (Selvaratnam 1991). The ULTT 1 test was described to each participant by the prime researcher before the test is performed and were informed that their participation was utmost important while recording the response on the body chart. They were also informed to move any part of their body while describing their response to the assistant researcher. Each participant wore a vest for the research purpose. There after each participant lay supine on a high/low plinth with the test arm slightly off the plinth. For convenience researcher passively manoeuvres the test first on right hand followed by the left .The position was secured with seat belts around thorax and pelvis to avert lateral movement of the chest. The right arm was tested first for convenience and was placed in starting position with the glen humeral (G-H) joint in neutral, elbow flexed and forearm, wrist, fingers and thumb in neutral. The other arm will lay relaxed adjacent to the abdomen. The participants were advised to maintain the head in neutral position and were requested to look at a spot on ceiling which negated any cervical spine rotation. Thus with the neck in neutral position the ULTT 1 test was commenced. To start with the shoulder was positioned in to neutral position and the examiner placed the hand on the test shoulder to prevent elevation. This was followed by G-H joint abduction to a maximum of 110 ° in frontal plane. From this position wrist, fingers and thumb were passively extended the forearm was supinated. The G-H joint was then externally rotated to no more than 50 ° as the third distinct component to shoulder. Thus the last component to be added was elbow extension. The elbow was extended until full extension was achieved or participant reported any symptoms at any stage of the test. When the symptom were reported by the participant the second researcher was responsible to record the nature of perceived sensory response in form of words or phrases and the location of the perceived sensory response on a right side marked on body chart. There after structural differentiation (STD) i.e. ipsilateral neck flexion (INF) was performed by the actively. ULTT1 was considered mechanosensitive positive only if the participant perceived reduction in the perceived symptoms and if the primary researcher performing ULTT visually observed an increase in the   range of motion at elbow after the addition of desensitising manoeuvre i.e. the ipsilateral neck flexion (Quinter 1989, Butler 1990). The response of mechanosensitivity for ULTT was recorded as â€Å"Yes â€Å"or â€Å"No† and the response to structural deviation was recorded as increased (↑) or decreased (↓) with respect to symptoms only. A break of 10 minutes was given before the test was performed in the left hand. The same procedure was carried out and data was collected in similar manner on body chart.   Data Analysis Descriptive statistics were utilized to know if mechanosensitivity for ULTT1 exists in the participants. After data collection all the sensory responses were collated on a single body chart(figure 2) which as further analysed by dividing the upper limb into five distinct areas i.e. cubital, forearm, wrist, fingers and thumb. Frequencies of these locations were counted regardless of its nature and were tabulated. This made comparison between the two hands easier. The nature of perceived sensory response which was reported as words or phrases was divided in two categories stretch pain, pull pain. Frequency of the similar type of response was counted and compared for further analysis. Demographic characteristics like age, years of experience, hours of work and dominance were to analyse if association between ULTT1 response and these variables exists. To achieve the aim of the study, the data were analysed by answering the following questions. Analysis of the ULTT1 response in asymptomatic key board operators i.e. (mechanosensitive and the perceived sensory response from body chart). From the above analysis are there any evidence showing upper limb neurodynamic tests for median nerve is positive among asymptomatic key board operators? If â€Å"Yes† is there a difference in the response to ULTT1 when compared bilaterally? If there is a difference in response when compared bilaterally, is there an association between the hours of work, age and dominance with the ULTT1 response. The answers to these key questions further assisted in exploration of the research question: Is there a variability of response to upper limb neurodynamic test of median nerve in asymptomatic keyboard operators when compared bilaterally RESULTS Summary of mechanosensitive response compared between mouse and non mouse hand: Table 1 : Table of mechanosensitivity and sensory response in bilateral upper limbs. No Mousehand RIGHT ULTT 1 RIGHT STD    LEFT ULTT 1 LEFT STD Nature of perceived sensory response (R) Location of sensory response(R) Nature of perceived sensory response (L) Location of sensory response(L) 1 L Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3 Stretch pain 1,2,3,4,5 2 R N ↓ N ↓ 3 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3,4,5 Pull pain 1,2 4 L Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3 Pull pain 1,2,3 5 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4 Stretch pain 1,2,3   6 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3,4,5 Pull pain 1,2 7 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3,4,5 Pull pain 1,2,3,4 8 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4 Stretch pain 1,2 9 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4,5 Stretch pain 1,2,3,4 10 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4 Stretch pain 1,2,3 11 R N ↓ N ↓ 12 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3,4,5 Pull pain 1,2,3,4,5 13 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4,5 Stretch pain 1,2,3 14 R Y Y Pull pain 1,2,3,4 Pull pain 1,2,3 15 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3,4,5 Pull pain 1,2 16 R N ↓ N ↓ 17 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4 Stretch pain 1,2 18 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3,4,5 Pull pain 1,2,3 19 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4 Stretch pain 1,2,3 20 R Y Y Stretch pain 1,2,3,4 Stretch pain 1,2, 21 L Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3,4 Pull pain 1,2,3,4,5 22 R N ↓ N ↓ 23 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3 Pull pain 1,2,3, 24 R Y Y Stretch pain 1,2,3,4,5 Stretch pain 1,2 25 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4,5 Stretch pain 1,2,3 26 L N ↓ N ↓ 27 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3,4 Pull pain 1,2 28 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4,5 Stretch pain 1,2,3 29 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Pull pain 1,2,3,4,5 Pull pain 1,2,3 30 R Y ↓ Y ↓ Stretch pain 1,2,3,4 Stretch pain 1,2,3 ULTT1 Upper limb neural tissue tension test for median nere ; STD structural differentiation; INF: ipsilateral neck flexion      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Incidenc e of mechanosensitive response Fig1-Incidence of detected mechanosensitive response for ULTT 1 amongst asymptomatic keyboard operators From figure 1 it was evident that a high number of participants showed response for ULTT1. On adding ipsilateral neck flexion all of them perceived reduction in the symptoms Table 1.There was nobody who had complained of   unilateral symptoms.   Thus there was no difference in the mechanosensitive response to ULLT1 in the mouse and non mouse hand. Nature of the perceived sensory response and difference between the mouse and the non mouse hand After summarising the data from 30 body charts it was observed that 13 participants (43.33%) had complained of â€Å"stretch pain† and 12 participants (40%) had complained of â€Å"pull† pain (Table 1). After comparing the sensory response of mouse hand and non mouse hand in table 1, it was observed there was no difference in perceived sensory response in both the hands. Location of the perceived sensory response The location of perceived sensation in the right and left hand of all the participants were plotted on a single body chart. Figure 1 shows numerical involvement of location of symptoms for the ULTT1 amongst asymptomatic keyboard operators. Figure 1: Body chart divided into 5 areas where responses were perceived. After analysing the repsponse Graphs 2a and 2b :Comparing the symptoms in the mouse and the non mouse hand Location of response  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Location of response From the graphs 2a and 2b it is clearly evident there was difference in the location of sensory response between the mouse and the non mouse hand. The median nerve was more sensititive in fingers and the wrist joints as compared to the non mouse hand. Discussion: Summary of the results The results from this study showed that asymptomatic keyboard operators showed a positive mechanosensitive response for ULTT1. There was no difference in the mechanosensitive and perceived sensory response when compared bilaterally. 83.33% participants had bilaterally positive mechanosensitive response and had shown increased area of symptoms in mouse hand. And on further reviewing individual characteristics of these participants there was no association found between with age, hours of work and years of experience. Byng 1997 compared the response of ULTT1 between patients, asymptomatic keyboard workers and asymptomatic non keyboard workers.   The results showed that key board operators had significant positive ULTT compared to non-keyboard user. Thus the current study and study performed by Byng et al 1997 proposes that a subclinical pathological condition exists in key board operators. There could be many reasons for such a scenario in this group of population. One of the reflection is the type of muscle exertion that is involved in the keyboard workers performing repetitive task for a prolonged hours causes static loading of neck and shoulder muscles (Subratty et al 2005). These static sustained contractions of the shoulders, neck and upper limbs may be required to fix the hands in a functional position necessary for the task (Pascarelli et al 2011). Along with this dynamic contraction of the forearm muscles are required for repetitive key actions which are then superimposed over this backg round of static muscular activity. The musculoskeletal system presents the nervous system with a mechanical interface (Butler 1989). A static muscle contraction such as those witnessed in key board users cause compression of a nerve there by reducing the mobility resulting in positive mechanosensitive response (Subratty et al 2005). The results of the study performed by Lohkamp et al 2011 were in contrast to the current study. He compared bilateral ULTT1 response in 90 normal individuals and the results showed that there were more neurogenic response and reduced ROM in the non dominant hand as compared to dominant hand. The difference in the result between the two studies could be attributed to the difference in the population involved. Lohkamp et al 2011 performed study on normal healthy individual who utilized their non-dominant hand less for their normal daily activities which could have led to reduced flexibility of muscles and compromised mobility of the nerve. In the present study since key board operation is a bilateral task such a difference was not observed. Structural differentiation is added to determine if the ULTT is positive or not (Butler 1991, Nee 2006). Depending on the type of structural differentiation applied, tension in the median nerve could be increased or decreased (Byl et al 2002).   In this study all the participants who had reported symptoms for ULTT1; 100% had reported decreased in the sensory response after adding structural differentiation (ipsilateral neck flexion). Similar results were reported by Selvaratnam et al 1994 and Scot et al 2008. This observation might be caused by decreased tensile force of the nerve causing increase in the circulation (Otaga and Niato, 1986). Similar results were seen in a study performed by Coopeiters et al 2002A which concluded that with structural differentiation there was a change in the ROM at the elbow joint and the frequency of response distal to it had reduced. Coopeiters et al 2002A also suggested performing contra lateral neck flexion as a structural differentiation to ULTT 1 as it causes more tension in the nerve tissue and is more specific in provoking the symptoms. But since this study was done in asymptomatic key board operators who are already exposed to high risk of developing overuse syndrome symptoms (Scot et al,2008),   contra lateral neck flexion was not the choice of STD in this study for ethical reasons. The present study found no difference in the perceived sensory response in the mouse and the non- mouse hand. Stretch and pull pain were the reported perceived symptoms. The literature reads that stretch and pull sensations are considered as normal response to ULTT1. An individual is considered as mechanosensitive positive if there is a decreased in the ROM while performing ULTT (Buttler1991). Even though the participants had shown response which was similar to normal’s they were still labelled as mechano sensitive for ULTT1 as the researcher had observed reduced ROM at elbow while performing ULTT but it was not measured. This further emphasise that asymptomatic key board users could have a hidden pathological state and are at high risk for developing repetitive stress injury syndromes. An understandable sample of frequency and nature of symptoms was recognized as there was not much of deviation. Amongst the participants who were mechanosensitive bilaterally 100% had perceived sensation at the cubital area (anterior aspect of elbow). The other common reported sites were forearm, wrist, fingers and thumb. The site of involvement was in accordance to the study put forth by Kenneally et al 1988 and Butler et al 1989. The 92% who had complained of more areas of response in mouse hand, had perceived symptoms in the cubital area   wrist fingers and thumb while the non dominant hand had received symptoms only in cubital area and forearm. The rationale for this could be the usage of the mouse itself.   Recent studies like Jepsen et al 2002 contributed to the literature by performing a cross sectional study on computer operators and concluded that pain, parasthesia and weakness were more prevalent in mouse arm as compared to non-mouse arm. The clinical reasoning behind this could be the mouse operating wrist is constantly positioned in a bent position and this causes reduced space in the carpal tunnel further reducing the mobility of median nerve and the other structures like tendon situated in it. Thus in the median exposed to more compressive forces in the mouse hand than the contra lateral limb and hence it becomes irritable and produces symptoms like tingling and numbness in the wrist, fingers and thumb. Also the difference in location of response had no association with age, hours of work and years of experience as these characteristics were no different than the other participants in the study similar result were observed by (Byng et al 1997) Theoretical Implication: From the current study it can be suggested that a subclinical pathological state exisits among female amongst the asymptomatic female key board operators supporting several hypothesis that the origin of repetitive stress injury are neurogenic in origin. This study also suggests that the usage of the mouse along with causes increased mechanosensitivity of median nerve in wrist fingers and thumb. Thus work place modification and ergonomic advise should also consider the mouse modification. Clinical Implication: Literature shows that dominant arm in normal’s could be used as a control group while assessing the ULTT1 response amongst symtomatics as there exists no variation in response to ULTT1 amongst normal healthy individuals. This study though performed on asymptomatic targeted an intermediate group and suggests that dominant arm is not a reliable diagnostic indicator as variability exists in the bilateral response with more response being in the dominant arm which is in contrast to the current literature. Strength of the study Limited research is available which compares bilateral response of ULTT1 thus the current study adds on to this limited literature. Also while ULTT1 was being conducted the researchers were blinded to the information of dominance to prevent assessor bias. The results obtained from the study could be generalizable as a large age group was included. Limitations Participants were labelled as mechanosesntitive positive if they had perceived a reduction in symptoms after adding ipsilateral neck flexion . No objecetive scale was used to find by how much the percentage the symptoms were reduced thus future research should incorporate scales like VAS scale to have more reliable results. The ULTT was carried out only ones on participants to label them as mechanosesntive positive. Thus this single reposne may not have recorded the real response. Ideally a mean of 3 response would be indiacted to prevent any errors. Scope for future research Future research should focus on more objective methods of accessing the variability of response ofULTT1 among symptomatic key board operators. If ROM is suggested as objective means to measure variability research should be carried out to know how much difference in ROM is required to label an individual mechanosensitive positive. 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The Origin of Wildfires and How They Are Caused

The Origin of Wildfires and How They Are Caused It is interesting to note that, of the four billion years of earths existence, conditions were not conducive for spontaneous wildfire until the last 400 million years. A naturally-occurring atmospheric fire did not have the chemical elements available until major several earth changes occurred. The earliest life forms emerged without needing oxygen (anaerobic organisms) to live about 3.5 billion years ago and lived in a carbon dioxide based atmosphere. Life forms that needed oxygen in small amounts (aerobic) came much later in the form of photosynthesizing blue-green algae and ultimately changed the earths atmospheric balance toward oxygen and away from carbon dioxide (co2). Photosynthesis increasingly dominated earths biology by initially creating and continuously increasing the earths percentage of oxygen in the air. Green plant growth then exploded and aerobic respiration became the biologic catalyst for terrestrial life. Around 600 million years ago and during the Paleozoic, conditions for natural combustion started developing with increasing speed. Wildfire Chemistry Fire needs fuel, oxygen, and heat to ignite and spread. Wherever forests grow, the fuel for forest fires is provided mainly by continued biomass production along with the resulting fuel load  of that vegetative growth. Oxygen is created in abundance by the photosynthesizing process of living green organisms so it is all around us in the air. All that is needed then is a source of heat to provide the exact chemistry combinations for a flame. When these natural combustibles (in the form of wood, leaves, brush) reach 572 º, gas in the steam given off reacts with oxygen to reach its flash point with a burst of flame. This flame then preheats surrounding fuels. In turn, other fuels heat up and the fire grows and spreads. If this spreading process is not controlled, you have a wildfire or uncontrolled forest fire. Depending on the geographic condition of the site and the vegetative fuels present, you might call these brush fires, forest fires, sage field fires, grass fires, woods fires, peat fires, bush fires, wildland fires, or veld fires. How Do Forest Fires Start? Naturally caused forest fires are usually started by dry lightning where little to no rain accompanies a stormy weather disturbance. Lightning randomly strikes the earth an average of 100 times each second or 3 billion times every year and has caused some of the most notable wildland fire disasters  in the western United States. Most lightning strikes occur in the North American southeast and southwest. Because they often occur in isolated locations with limited access, lightning fires burn more acres than human-caused starts. The average 10-year total of U.S. wildfire acres burned and caused by humans is 1.9 million acres where  2.1 million acres burned are lightning-caused. Still, human fire activity is the primary cause of wildfires, with nearly ten times the start rate of natural starts. Most of these human-caused fires are accidental, usually caused by carelessness or inattention by campers, hikers, or others traveling through wildland or by debris and garbage burners. Some are intentionally set by arsonists. Some human-caused fires are started to reduce heavy fuel buildup and used as a forest management tool. This is called a controlled or prescribed burn and used for wildfire fire fuel reduction, wildlife habitat enhancement, and debris clearing. They are not included in the above statistics and ultimately reduce wildfire numbers by reducing conditions that contribute to wildfire and forest fires. How Does Wildland Fire Spread? The three primary classes of wildland fires are surface, crown, and ground fires. Each classification  intensity depends on the quantity and types of fuels involved and their moisture content. These conditions have an effect on fire intensity and will determine how fast the fire will spread. Surface fires typically burn readily but at a low intensity and partially consume the entire fuel layer while presenting little danger to mature trees and root systems. Fuel buildup over many years will increase intensity and especially when associated with drought, can become a rapidly spreading ground fire. Regular controlled fire or prescribed burning effectively reduces the fuel buildup leading to a damaging ground fire.Crown fires generally result from intense rising ground fire heat and occur in the higher sections of draping trees. The resulting ladder effect causes hot surface or ground fires to climb the fuels into the canopy. This can increase the chance for embers to blow and branches to fall into unburned areas and increase the spread the fire.Ground fires are the most infrequent type of fire but make for very intense blazes that can potentially destroy all vegetation and organic manner, leaving only bare earth. These largest fires actually create their own winds and weat her, increasing the flow of oxygen and feeding the fire.